La Relación entre el Índice socioeconómico y la Ansiedad para el periodo 2020-2021
Barra lateral del artículo
Publicado:
dic 27, 2025
Palabras clave:
Ansiedad infantil, Nivel socioeconómico, Privaciones
Contenido principal del artículo
Resumen
En la actualidad, las enfermedades mentales, incluida la ansiedad, han cobrado una creciente relevancia a nivel global. De acuerdo con la Organización Mundial de la Salud, la ansiedad constituye la enfermedad mental más prevalente a escala mundial, afectando aproximadamente a 301 millones de personas a nivel global, y en el caso de los niños de 8 a 9 años en Ecuador el 42.7% percibe tener ansiedad. El presente artículo se centra en el análisis de la relación entre el nivel socioeconómico y la ansiedad en estudiantes de 4to EGB durante el período 2020-2021. Mediante la aplicación del modelo Probit y empleando el método de Máxima Verosimilitud (MV), se determina que, por cada incremento de un punto en el índice socioeconómico, la probabilidad de percibir ansiedad disminuye en un 20.7%. No obstante, la investigación resalta que el fenómeno de percibir ansiedad está presente en todos los estratos del índice socioeconómico.
Descargas
La descarga de datos todavía no está disponible.
Detalles del artículo
Cómo citar
Maldonado, M., Galárraga, J., & Meneses, K. (2025). La Relación entre el Índice socioeconómico y la Ansiedad para el periodo 2020-2021. Cuestiones Económicas, 35(2), Autores: Martín Maldonado, Julio Galárraga y Karla Meneses. https://doi.org/10.47550/RCE/35.2.8
Sección
Artículos de Investigación
Citas
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). American Psychiatric Press.
Bagwell, C. L., Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1998). Preadolescent friendship and peer rejection as predictors of adult adjustment. Child Development, 69(1), 140–153.
Bessone, G., Rao, F., Schilbach, H., Schofield, M., & Toma. (2020). The economic consequences of increasing sleep among the urban poor (Working Paper No. 26746). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/papers/w26746
Boer, F., Markus, M. T., Maingay, R., Lindhout, I. E., Borst, S. R., & Hoogendijk, T. H. (2002). Negative life events of anxiety disordered children: Bad fortune, vulnerability, or reporter bias? Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 32, 187–199.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. Tavistock-Routledge.
Brandts, L., Bosma, H., Simons, A., Groffen, D., & van den Akker, M. (2016). The socioeconomic roots of shame and perceptions of social inadequacy. MaRBLe Research Papers. https://doi.org/10.26481/marble.2014.v2.318
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. International Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), 37–43.
Cebolla, H. (2013). Introducción al análisis multinivel.
Cole, D., Peeke, L., Martin, J., Truglio, R., & Seroczynski, A. D. (1998). A longitudinal look at the relation between depression and anxiety in children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 451–460.
Collins, J., Morduch, S., Rutherford, O., & Ruthven, N. (2009). Portfolios of the poor: How the world’s poor live on $2 a day. Princeton University Press.
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127.
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 685–704.
Costello, E., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.
Cunradi, C., Caetano, R., Clark, C., & Schafer, J. (2000). Neighborhood poverty as a predictor of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States: A multilevel analysis. Annals of Epidemiology, 10, 297–308.
Dadds, M. R., Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family processes and child anxiety and aggression: An observational study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 715–734.
Donovan, C. L., & Spence, S. H. (2000). Prevention of childhood anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 509–531.
Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (2000). Targeting intolerance of uncertainty in two types of worry. Behavior Modification, 24, 635–657.
Dumas, J. E., LaFreniere, P. J., & Serketich, W. J. (1995). Balance of power: A transactional analysis of control in mother–child dyads involving socially competent, aggressive, and anxious children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 104–113.
Ezpeleta, L., Keeler, G., Alaatin, E., Costello, J., & Angold, A. (2001). Epidemiology of psychiatric disability in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 901–914.
Gerull, F. C., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Mother knows best: The effects of maternal modeling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance in toddlers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 169–178.
Global Burden of Disease. (2023). Global Burden of Disease Study 2023 (GBD 2023) Results. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), 2024. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results/
Goodwin, R. D., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2004). Early anxious/withdrawn behaviours predict later internalizing disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 874–883.
Graczyk, P. A., Connolly, S. D., & Corapci, F. (2010). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Theory, treatment, and prevention. En Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science (pp. 1–38). John Wiley & Sons.
Hanie, E. H., & Stanard, R. P. (2009). Students with anxiety: The role of the professional school counselor. GSCA Journal, 16(1), 49–54.
Hollingshead, A., & Redlich, F. C. (1958). Social class and mental illness: A community study. John Wiley. https://digitalcommons.lesley.edu/education_dissertations/209
INEVAL. (2023). Ser Estudiante. Instituto Nacional de Evaluación Educativa.
Kagan, J. (1997). Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity. Child Development, 68, 139–143.
Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Üstün, T. B. (2007). Age of onset of mental disorders: A review of recent literature. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20(4), 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32816ebc8c
Ladin, K., Daniels, N., & Kawachi, I. (2009). Exploring the relationship between absolute and relative position and late-life depression: Evidence from 10 European countries. The Gerontologist, 50(1), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnp065
Layte, R. (2011). Income inequality and mental health: A causal review. European Sociological Review, 27(4), 498–511. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq014
Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet, 365, 1099–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6
Mifsud, C., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). Early intervention for childhood anxiety in a school setting: Outcomes for an economically disadvantaged population. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(10), 996–1004. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000173294.13441.87
Minahan, J. (2023). Qualitative study of teachers’ knowledge of anxiety and their feelings of preparedness to support students with anxiety [Tesis de doctorado, Lesley University]. https://digitalcommons.lesley.edu/education_dissertations/209
Ministerio de Inclusión Económica y Social. (2014). Medidas de pobreza: Conceptualización y alcance. Coordinación General de Gestión del Conocimiento.
Muris, P., Merkelbach, H., & Merckelbach, H. (2008). A 25-year review of research on childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(4), 388–395.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2015). Supportive relationships and active skill-building strengthen the foundations of resilience (Working Paper No. 13). Harvard University. http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu
Ochi, M., Fujiwara, T., Mizuki, R., & Kawakami, N. (2014). Association of socioeconomic status in childhood with major depression and generalized anxiety disorder: Results from the World Mental Health Japan Survey 2002-2006. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 359. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-359
Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS). (2022). COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression worldwide. https://www.who.int/news/item/02-03-2022-covid-19-pandemic-triggers-25-increase-in-prevalence-of-anxiety-and-depression-worldwide
Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS). (2025). Trastornos mentales. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders
Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS). (2023). Una nueva agenda para la salud mental en las Américas. OPS. https://doi.org/10.37774/9789275327265
Perez-Truglia, R. (2020). The effects of income transparency on wellbeing: Evidence from a natural experiment. American Economic Review, 110, 1019–1054. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20160256
Rapee, R. M., Schniering, C. A., & Hudson, J. L. (2009). Anxiety disorders during childhood and adolescence: Origins and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 311–341. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153628
Reardon, T., Harvey, K., & Creswell, C. (2019). Seeking and accessing professional support for child anxiety in a community sample. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01388-4
Reiss, F., Meyrose, A. K., Otto, C., Lampert, T., Klasen, F., & Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2019). Socioeconomic status, stressful life situations and mental health problems in children and adolescents: Results of the German BELLA cohort-study. PLOS ONE, 14(3), e0213700. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213700
Reiss, S., & McNally, R. J. (1985). The expectancy model of fear. En S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in Behavior Therapy (pp. 107–121). Academic Press.
Reiss, S. (1991). Expectancy models of fear, anxiety, and panic. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 141–153.
Ridley, M., Schilbach, F., Patel, V., & Rahman, A. (2020). The causal relationship between poverty and common mental illnesses. Science, 370(6522), eaay0214. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay0214
Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., Kennedy, A. E., & Stewart, S. L. (2003). Social withdrawal in childhood. En E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child Psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 372–408). Guilford Press.
Ruiz Sancho, A. M., & Lago Pita, B. (2005). Trastornos de ansiedad en la infancia y en la adolescencia. En AEPap (Ed.), Curso de Actualización Pediatría 2005 (pp. 265–280). Exlibris Ediciones.
Salami, T. K., & Walker, R. L. (2013). Socioeconomic status and symptoms of depression and anxiety in African American college students: The mediating role of hopelessness. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(3), 275–290.
Schoen, C., Davis, K., How, S., & Schoenbaum, S. (2006). U. S. health system performance: A national scorecard. Health Affairs Web Exclusive, w457–w475.
Scott, K. M., Lim, C., Al-Hamzawi, A., Alonso, J., Bruffaerts, R., Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M., Florescu, S., de Girolamo, G., Hu, C., de Jonge, P., Kawakami, N., Medina-Mora, M. E., Moskalewicz, J., Navarro-Mateu, F., O’Neill, S., Piazza, M., Posada-Villa, J., Torres, Y., & Kessler, R. C. (2016). Association of mental disorders with subsequent chronic physical conditions. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(2), 150–158. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.2688
Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. https://indigenasdelperu.wordpress.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/09/desarrollo_y_libertad_-_amartya_sen.pdf
Sharkey, M., Besbris, M., & Friedson, A. (2016). En D. Brady & L. M. Burton (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty. Oxford University Press.
Spence, S. H. (2001). Prevention strategies. En M. Vasey & M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The Developmental Psychopathology of Anxiety (pp. 325–341). Oxford University Press.
Spence, S. H., Donovan, C., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (2000). The treatment of childhood social phobia: The effectiveness of social skills-based cognitive-behavioral intervention with and without parental involvement. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 713–726.
Stock, J., & Watson, M. (2012). Introducción a la econometría. Pearson Educación.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Risk and protective factors. https://www.samhsa.gov/ebp-resource-center
U.S. Department of Education. (2021). Supporting child and student social, emotional, behavioral, and mental health needs. https://www2.ed.gov/documents/press-releases/supporting-child-student-social-emotional-behavioral-mental-health.pdf
Vine, M., Vander Stoep, A., Bell, J., Rhew, I. C., Gudmundsen, G., & McCauley, E. (2012). Associations between household and neighborhood income and anxiety symptoms in young adolescents. Depression and Anxiety, 00, 1–9.
Waas, G. A., & Graczyk, P. A. (2000). Child behaviors leading to peer rejection: A view from the peer group. Child Study Journal, 29(4), 291–306.
Werner, E. E. (1995). Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 81–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772327
Wooldridge, J. (2019). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT Press.
Yancey, A. K., Siegel, J. M., & McDaniel, K. L. (2002). Role models, ethnic identity, and health-risk behaviors in urban adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156, 55–61.
Yitzhaki, S. (1979). Relative deprivation and the Gini coefficient. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 93(2), 321–324.
Zhu, Y., Chen, X., Zhao, H., Chen, M., Tian, Y., Liu, C., Han, Z., Lin, X., Qiu, J., Xue, G., Shu, H., & Qin, S. (2019). Parental anxiety and children’s cortisol awakening response: A moderated mediation model of socioeconomic status and child anxiety. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 103, 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.01.008
Bagwell, C. L., Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1998). Preadolescent friendship and peer rejection as predictors of adult adjustment. Child Development, 69(1), 140–153.
Bessone, G., Rao, F., Schilbach, H., Schofield, M., & Toma. (2020). The economic consequences of increasing sleep among the urban poor (Working Paper No. 26746). National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/papers/w26746
Boer, F., Markus, M. T., Maingay, R., Lindhout, I. E., Borst, S. R., & Hoogendijk, T. H. (2002). Negative life events of anxiety disordered children: Bad fortune, vulnerability, or reporter bias? Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 32, 187–199.
Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Clinical applications of attachment theory. Tavistock-Routledge.
Brandts, L., Bosma, H., Simons, A., Groffen, D., & van den Akker, M. (2016). The socioeconomic roots of shame and perceptions of social inadequacy. MaRBLe Research Papers. https://doi.org/10.26481/marble.2014.v2.318
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. International Encyclopedia of Education, 3(2), 37–43.
Cebolla, H. (2013). Introducción al análisis multinivel.
Cole, D., Peeke, L., Martin, J., Truglio, R., & Seroczynski, A. D. (1998). A longitudinal look at the relation between depression and anxiety in children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 451–460.
Collins, J., Morduch, S., Rutherford, O., & Ruthven, N. (2009). Portfolios of the poor: How the world’s poor live on $2 a day. Princeton University Press.
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 87–127.
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., & Martin, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status, family processes, and individual development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 685–704.
Costello, E., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.
Cunradi, C., Caetano, R., Clark, C., & Schafer, J. (2000). Neighborhood poverty as a predictor of intimate partner violence among White, Black, and Hispanic couples in the United States: A multilevel analysis. Annals of Epidemiology, 10, 297–308.
Dadds, M. R., Barrett, P. M., Rapee, R. M., & Ryan, S. (1996). Family processes and child anxiety and aggression: An observational study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 715–734.
Donovan, C. L., & Spence, S. H. (2000). Prevention of childhood anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 509–531.
Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (2000). Targeting intolerance of uncertainty in two types of worry. Behavior Modification, 24, 635–657.
Dumas, J. E., LaFreniere, P. J., & Serketich, W. J. (1995). Balance of power: A transactional analysis of control in mother–child dyads involving socially competent, aggressive, and anxious children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 104–113.
Ezpeleta, L., Keeler, G., Alaatin, E., Costello, J., & Angold, A. (2001). Epidemiology of psychiatric disability in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 901–914.
Gerull, F. C., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Mother knows best: The effects of maternal modeling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance in toddlers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 169–178.
Global Burden of Disease. (2023). Global Burden of Disease Study 2023 (GBD 2023) Results. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), 2024. https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-results/
Goodwin, R. D., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2004). Early anxious/withdrawn behaviours predict later internalizing disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 874–883.
Graczyk, P. A., Connolly, S. D., & Corapci, F. (2010). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Theory, treatment, and prevention. En Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science (pp. 1–38). John Wiley & Sons.
Hanie, E. H., & Stanard, R. P. (2009). Students with anxiety: The role of the professional school counselor. GSCA Journal, 16(1), 49–54.
Hollingshead, A., & Redlich, F. C. (1958). Social class and mental illness: A community study. John Wiley. https://digitalcommons.lesley.edu/education_dissertations/209
INEVAL. (2023). Ser Estudiante. Instituto Nacional de Evaluación Educativa.
Kagan, J. (1997). Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity. Child Development, 68, 139–143.
Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Üstün, T. B. (2007). Age of onset of mental disorders: A review of recent literature. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 20(4), 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0b013e32816ebc8c
Ladin, K., Daniels, N., & Kawachi, I. (2009). Exploring the relationship between absolute and relative position and late-life depression: Evidence from 10 European countries. The Gerontologist, 50(1), 48–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnp065
Layte, R. (2011). Income inequality and mental health: A causal review. European Sociological Review, 27(4), 498–511. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcq014
Marmot, M. (2005). Social determinants of health inequalities. Lancet, 365, 1099–1104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71146-6
Mifsud, C., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). Early intervention for childhood anxiety in a school setting: Outcomes for an economically disadvantaged population. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(10), 996–1004. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000173294.13441.87
Minahan, J. (2023). Qualitative study of teachers’ knowledge of anxiety and their feelings of preparedness to support students with anxiety [Tesis de doctorado, Lesley University]. https://digitalcommons.lesley.edu/education_dissertations/209
Ministerio de Inclusión Económica y Social. (2014). Medidas de pobreza: Conceptualización y alcance. Coordinación General de Gestión del Conocimiento.
Muris, P., Merkelbach, H., & Merckelbach, H. (2008). A 25-year review of research on childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(4), 388–395.
National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2015). Supportive relationships and active skill-building strengthen the foundations of resilience (Working Paper No. 13). Harvard University. http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu
Ochi, M., Fujiwara, T., Mizuki, R., & Kawakami, N. (2014). Association of socioeconomic status in childhood with major depression and generalized anxiety disorder: Results from the World Mental Health Japan Survey 2002-2006. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 359. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-359
Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS). (2022). COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression worldwide. https://www.who.int/news/item/02-03-2022-covid-19-pandemic-triggers-25-increase-in-prevalence-of-anxiety-and-depression-worldwide
Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS). (2025). Trastornos mentales. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-disorders
Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS). (2023). Una nueva agenda para la salud mental en las Américas. OPS. https://doi.org/10.37774/9789275327265
Perez-Truglia, R. (2020). The effects of income transparency on wellbeing: Evidence from a natural experiment. American Economic Review, 110, 1019–1054. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20160256
Rapee, R. M., Schniering, C. A., & Hudson, J. L. (2009). Anxiety disorders during childhood and adolescence: Origins and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 311–341. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153628
Reardon, T., Harvey, K., & Creswell, C. (2019). Seeking and accessing professional support for child anxiety in a community sample. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-019-01388-4
Reiss, F., Meyrose, A. K., Otto, C., Lampert, T., Klasen, F., & Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2019). Socioeconomic status, stressful life situations and mental health problems in children and adolescents: Results of the German BELLA cohort-study. PLOS ONE, 14(3), e0213700. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213700
Reiss, S., & McNally, R. J. (1985). The expectancy model of fear. En S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in Behavior Therapy (pp. 107–121). Academic Press.
Reiss, S. (1991). Expectancy models of fear, anxiety, and panic. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 141–153.
Ridley, M., Schilbach, F., Patel, V., & Rahman, A. (2020). The causal relationship between poverty and common mental illnesses. Science, 370(6522), eaay0214. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aay0214
Rubin, K. H., Burgess, K. B., Kennedy, A. E., & Stewart, S. L. (2003). Social withdrawal in childhood. En E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child Psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 372–408). Guilford Press.
Ruiz Sancho, A. M., & Lago Pita, B. (2005). Trastornos de ansiedad en la infancia y en la adolescencia. En AEPap (Ed.), Curso de Actualización Pediatría 2005 (pp. 265–280). Exlibris Ediciones.
Salami, T. K., & Walker, R. L. (2013). Socioeconomic status and symptoms of depression and anxiety in African American college students: The mediating role of hopelessness. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(3), 275–290.
Schoen, C., Davis, K., How, S., & Schoenbaum, S. (2006). U. S. health system performance: A national scorecard. Health Affairs Web Exclusive, w457–w475.
Scott, K. M., Lim, C., Al-Hamzawi, A., Alonso, J., Bruffaerts, R., Caldas-de-Almeida, J. M., Florescu, S., de Girolamo, G., Hu, C., de Jonge, P., Kawakami, N., Medina-Mora, M. E., Moskalewicz, J., Navarro-Mateu, F., O’Neill, S., Piazza, M., Posada-Villa, J., Torres, Y., & Kessler, R. C. (2016). Association of mental disorders with subsequent chronic physical conditions. JAMA Psychiatry, 73(2), 150–158. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.2688
Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. https://indigenasdelperu.wordpress.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/09/desarrollo_y_libertad_-_amartya_sen.pdf
Sharkey, M., Besbris, M., & Friedson, A. (2016). En D. Brady & L. M. Burton (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty. Oxford University Press.
Spence, S. H. (2001). Prevention strategies. En M. Vasey & M. R. Dadds (Eds.), The Developmental Psychopathology of Anxiety (pp. 325–341). Oxford University Press.
Spence, S. H., Donovan, C., & Brechman-Toussaint, M. (2000). The treatment of childhood social phobia: The effectiveness of social skills-based cognitive-behavioral intervention with and without parental involvement. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 713–726.
Stock, J., & Watson, M. (2012). Introducción a la econometría. Pearson Educación.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2019). Risk and protective factors. https://www.samhsa.gov/ebp-resource-center
U.S. Department of Education. (2021). Supporting child and student social, emotional, behavioral, and mental health needs. https://www2.ed.gov/documents/press-releases/supporting-child-student-social-emotional-behavioral-mental-health.pdf
Vine, M., Vander Stoep, A., Bell, J., Rhew, I. C., Gudmundsen, G., & McCauley, E. (2012). Associations between household and neighborhood income and anxiety symptoms in young adolescents. Depression and Anxiety, 00, 1–9.
Waas, G. A., & Graczyk, P. A. (2000). Child behaviors leading to peer rejection: A view from the peer group. Child Study Journal, 29(4), 291–306.
Werner, E. E. (1995). Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 81–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772327
Wooldridge, J. (2019). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT Press.
Yancey, A. K., Siegel, J. M., & McDaniel, K. L. (2002). Role models, ethnic identity, and health-risk behaviors in urban adolescents. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156, 55–61.
Yitzhaki, S. (1979). Relative deprivation and the Gini coefficient. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 93(2), 321–324.
Zhu, Y., Chen, X., Zhao, H., Chen, M., Tian, Y., Liu, C., Han, Z., Lin, X., Qiu, J., Xue, G., Shu, H., & Qin, S. (2019). Parental anxiety and children’s cortisol awakening response: A moderated mediation model of socioeconomic status and child anxiety. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 103, 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.01.008