Haciendo números: el costo real de una dieta nutritiva en Ecuador
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Published:
Dec 20, 2024
Keywords:
Diet problem, Linear programming, Nutrition minimum cost, Malnutrition, Poverty
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Abstract
This study aims to estimate the balanced dietary cost in the capital city of Ecuador, a country with high rates of malnutrition and food insecurity. By collecting retail food prices in Quito and using macronutrient composition data to set and solve a diet problem, the study identifies the cheapest combination of foods needed to meet nutritional requirements. Specifically, it identifies three options for minimum cost and nutritionally complete grocery shopping lists that are culturally adapted to Ecuadorian habits. The results show that the reported costs of affording a nutritionally complete diet in Quito, range from US$ 3.09 to US$ 3.64 per day, per person, in December 2022 dollars. However, between 28.23% and 32.75% of Ecuadorians cannot afford this cost even if they spend all their income on food, and undernutrition government programs are not sufficient to address the issue.
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Bonilla-Bolaños, A., Salazar, Y., & Salazar, F. (2024). Haciendo números: el costo real de una dieta nutritiva en Ecuador. Cuestiones Económicas, 34(2), Autores: Andrea Bonilla, Fernanda Salazar y Yasmín Salazar. https://doi.org/10.47550/34.2.1
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Artículos de Investigación
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References
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Arthur, S. S., Nyide, B., Soura, A. B., Kahn, K., Weston, M., & Sankoh, O. (2015). Tackling Malnutrition: A Systematic Review of 15-Year Research Evidence from INDEPTH Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems. Global Health Action, 8(1), 28298. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v8.28298
Babalola, A., Ojokoh, B., & Odili, J. (2020). Diet Optimization Techniques: A Review. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Mathe-matics and Computer Engineering and Computer Science (ICMCECS). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICMCECS47690.2020.240857
Bai, Y., Alemu, R., Block, S. A., Headey, D., & Masters, W. A. (2021). Cost and Affordability of Nutritious Diets at Retail Prices: Evidence from 177 Countries. Food Policy, 99, 101983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food-pol.2020.101983
Bildtgard, T. (2010). What It Means to “Eat Well” in France and Sweden. Food and Foodways, 18(4), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.2010.529017
Blades, M. (2001). Factors Affecting What We Eat. Nutrition & Food Science, 31(2), 71–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/00346650110366982
Bonilla-Bolaños, A., & Salazar-Méndez, Y. (2021). Hablemos de renta básica universal en el ecuador: monto mínimo de una canasta básica emergente y beneficiarios. Escuela Politécnica Nacional. https://economia.epn.edu.ec/images/ARCHIVOS/NOTAS_TECNICAS/Nota_tecnica_1-Hablemos_sobre_la_renta_basica_universal.pdf
Briend, A., Darmon, N., Ferguson, E., & Erhardt, J. (2003). Linear Pro-gramming: A Mathematical Tool for Analyzing and Optimizing Children’s Diets During the Complementary Feeding Period. Journal Crunching the numbers: the real cost of a nutritious diet in Ecuadorof Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 36(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005176-200301000-00006
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Darmon, N., & Drewnowski, A. (2015). Contribution of Food Prices and Diet Cost to Socioeconomic Disparities in Diet Quality and Health: A System-atic Review and Analysis. Nutrition Reviews, 73(10), 643–660.https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuv027
Deliens, T., Clarys, P., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., & Deforche, B. (2014). Deter-minants of Eating Behaviour in University Students: A Qualitative Study Using Focus Group Discussions. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-53
Dos Santos, Q., Sichieri, R., Darmon, N., Maillot, M., & Verly-Junior, E. (2018). Food Choices to Meet Nutrient Recommendations for the Adult Brazilian Population Based on the Linear Programming Approach. Public Health Nutrition, 21(8), 1538–1545. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017003883
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2001). The State of Food Inse-curity in the World 2001. FAO. https://www.fao.org/agrifood-economics/publications/detail/en/c/122100/
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2008). The State of Food Insecu-rity in the World 2008: High Food Prices and Food Security–Threats and Opportunities. FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i0291e/i0291e.pdf
FAO Ecuador. (2018). Guías alimentarias basadas en alimentos (GABA) del Ecuador. FAO.
FAO, FIDA, OPS, PMA, & UNICEF. (2023). Panorama Regional de la Segu-ridad Alimentaria y Nutricional-América Latina y el Caribe 2022: Hacia una Mejor Asequibilidad de las Dietas Saludables. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3859es
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO. (2022a). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022: Repurposing Food and Agricultural Policies to Make Healthy Diets More Affordable. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO. (2022b). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
Freire, W. B., Silva-Jaramillo, K. M., Ramírez-Luzuriaga, M. J., Belmont, P., & Waters, W. F. (2014). The Double Burden of Undernutrition and Excess Body Weight in Ecuador. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(6), 1636S–1643S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.083766
Gazan, R., Brouzes, C. M. C., Vieux, F., Maillot, M., Lluch, A., & Darmon, N. (2018). Mathematical Optimization to Explore Tomorrow’s Sustainable Diets: A Narrative Review. Advances in Nutrition, 9(5), 602–616. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmy049
Ghosh, S. (2020). Factors Responsible for Childhood Malnutrition: A Review of the Literature. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science, 8(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.8.2.01
Gottesman, M. M. (2002). Helping Toddlers Eat Well. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 16(2), 92–96. https://doi.org/10.1067/mph.2002.122804
Hirvonen, K., Bai, Y., Headey, D., & Masters, W. A. (2020). Affordability of the EAT-Lancet Reference Diet: A Global Analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 8(1), e59–e66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30447-4
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Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2022a). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU), Diciembre 2022: Pobreza y Desigualdad. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/POBREZA/2022/Diciembre_2022/Informe_pobreza_diciembre_2022.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2023). Informe Ejecutivo de las Canastas Analíticas: Básica y Vital. Enero 2023. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/webinec/Inflacion/canastas/Canas-tas_2023/Enero/1.%20Informe_Ejecutivo_Canastas_Analiticas_ene_2023.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2018).Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (ENSANUT).
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2022b). Pobreza por Ingresos: Indicadores de Pobreza y Desigualdad-Ecuador. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/pobreza-diciembre-2022/
Montagnese, C., Santarpia, L., Buonifacio, M., Nardelli, A., Caldara, A. R., Silvestri, E., Contaldo, F., & Pasanisi, F. (2015). European Food-Based Dietary Guidelines: A Comparison and Update. Nutrition, 31(7–8), 908–915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2015.01.002
Nyberg, S. T., Batty, G. D., Pentti, J., Virtanen, M., Alfredsson, L., Fransson, E. I., Goldberg, M., Heikkilä, K., Jokela, M., Knutsson, A., Koskenvuo, M., Lallukka, T., Leineweber, C., Lindbohm, J. V., Madsen, I. E. H., Magnus-son Hanson, L. L., Nordin, M., Oksanen, T., Pietiläinen, O., ... Kivimäki, M. (2018). Obesity and Loss of Disease-Free Years Owing to Major Non-Communicable Diseases: A Multicohort Study. The Lancet Public Health, 3(10), e490–e497. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30139-7
Palma, A. (2018). Malnutrition Among Children in Latin America and the Caribbean. CEPAL. https://www.cepal.org/en/insights/malnutri-tion-among-children-latin-america-and-caribbean
Sakarovitch, M. (2013). Linear Programming. Birkhäuser. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4106-3
Smith, V. E. (1959). Linear Programming Models for the Determination of Palatable Human Diets. Journal of Farm Economics, 41(2), 272–283. https://doi.org/10.2307/1235154
Soeters, P., Bozzetti, F., Cynober, L., Forbes, A., Shenkin, A., & Sobotka, L. (2017). Defining Malnutrition: A Plea to Rethink. Clinical Nutrition, 36(3), 896–901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2016.09.032
Stigler, G. J. (1945). The Cost of Subsistence. Journal of Farm Economics, 27(2), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.2307/1231810
Tharrey, M., Olaya, G., Fewtrell, M., & Ferguson, E. (2017). Adaptation of New Colombian Food-Based Complementary Feeding Recommendations Using Linear Programming. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 65(5), 582–589. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000001662
Verly-Jr, E., Sichieri, R., Darmon, N., Maillot, M., & Sarti, F. M. (2019). Planning Dietary Improvements Without Additional Costs for Low-In-come Individuals in Brazil: Linear Programming Optimization as a Tool for Public Policy in Nutrition and Health. Nutrition Journal, 18(1), 40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-019-0466-y
Walrod, J., Seccareccia, E., Sarmiento, I., Pimentel, J. P., Misra, S., Morales, J., Doucet, A., & Andersson, N. (2018). Community Factors Associat-ed with Stunting, Overweight and Food Insecurity: A Community-Based Mixed-Method Study in Four Andean Indigenous Communities in Ecuador. BMJ Open, 8(7), e020760. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020760
Whitelock, E., & Ensaff, H. (2018). On Your Own: Older Adults’ Food Choice and Dietary Habits. Nutrients, 10(4), 413. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10040413
World Health Organization (WHO). (2000). Turning the Tide of Malnutrition: Responding to the Challenge of the 21st Century. WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66505
World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). Action Framework for Developing and Implementing Public Food Procurement and Service Policies for a Healthy Diet. WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/338525
Ali, M., Sufahani, S., & Ismail, Z. (2016). A New Diet Scheduling Model for Malaysian School Children Using Zero-One Optimization Approach. Global Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, 12, 413–419.
Armas, A. (2005). Redes e institucionalización en Ecuador: Bono de Desarrollo Humano. CEPAL. https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/5796/1/S05828_es.pdf
Arthur, S. S., Nyide, B., Soura, A. B., Kahn, K., Weston, M., & Sankoh, O. (2015). Tackling Malnutrition: A Systematic Review of 15-Year Research Evidence from INDEPTH Health and Demographic Surveillance Systems. Global Health Action, 8(1), 28298. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v8.28298
Babalola, A., Ojokoh, B., & Odili, J. (2020). Diet Optimization Techniques: A Review. Proceedings of the 2020 International Conference on Mathe-matics and Computer Engineering and Computer Science (ICMCECS). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICMCECS47690.2020.240857
Bai, Y., Alemu, R., Block, S. A., Headey, D., & Masters, W. A. (2021). Cost and Affordability of Nutritious Diets at Retail Prices: Evidence from 177 Countries. Food Policy, 99, 101983. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.food-pol.2020.101983
Bildtgard, T. (2010). What It Means to “Eat Well” in France and Sweden. Food and Foodways, 18(4), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/07409710.2010.529017
Blades, M. (2001). Factors Affecting What We Eat. Nutrition & Food Science, 31(2), 71–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/00346650110366982
Bonilla-Bolaños, A., & Salazar-Méndez, Y. (2021). Hablemos de renta básica universal en el ecuador: monto mínimo de una canasta básica emergente y beneficiarios. Escuela Politécnica Nacional. https://economia.epn.edu.ec/images/ARCHIVOS/NOTAS_TECNICAS/Nota_tecnica_1-Hablemos_sobre_la_renta_basica_universal.pdf
Briend, A., Darmon, N., Ferguson, E., & Erhardt, J. (2003). Linear Pro-gramming: A Mathematical Tool for Analyzing and Optimizing Children’s Diets During the Complementary Feeding Period. Journal Crunching the numbers: the real cost of a nutritious diet in Ecuadorof Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 36(1), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005176-200301000-00006
Burki, T. (2022). Food Security and Nutrition in the World. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 10(9), 622. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(22)00220-0
Cavagnari, B., Guerrero-Vaca, D., Carpio-Arias, V., Durán-Aguero, S., Veloz, A. F., Robalino-Valdivieso, M., Morejón-Terán, Y., & Vinueza Veloz, M. F. (2022). Gross Motor Development and Malnutrition in Ecuadorian Chil-dren: A Cross-Sectional Study. Research Square. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1503238/v2
Chaparro, C. M., & Suchdev, P. S. (2019). Anemia Epidemiology, Pathophys-iology, and Etiology in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1450(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14092
Dantzig, G. B. (1990). The Diet Problem. Interfaces, 20(4), 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1287/inte.20.4.43
Darmon, N., & Drewnowski, A. (2015). Contribution of Food Prices and Diet Cost to Socioeconomic Disparities in Diet Quality and Health: A System-atic Review and Analysis. Nutrition Reviews, 73(10), 643–660.https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuv027
Deliens, T., Clarys, P., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., & Deforche, B. (2014). Deter-minants of Eating Behaviour in University Students: A Qualitative Study Using Focus Group Discussions. BMC Public Health, 14(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-53
Dos Santos, Q., Sichieri, R., Darmon, N., Maillot, M., & Verly-Junior, E. (2018). Food Choices to Meet Nutrient Recommendations for the Adult Brazilian Population Based on the Linear Programming Approach. Public Health Nutrition, 21(8), 1538–1545. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017003883
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2001). The State of Food Inse-curity in the World 2001. FAO. https://www.fao.org/agrifood-economics/publications/detail/en/c/122100/
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). (2008). The State of Food Insecu-rity in the World 2008: High Food Prices and Food Security–Threats and Opportunities. FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/i0291e/i0291e.pdf
FAO Ecuador. (2018). Guías alimentarias basadas en alimentos (GABA) del Ecuador. FAO.
FAO, FIDA, OPS, PMA, & UNICEF. (2023). Panorama Regional de la Segu-ridad Alimentaria y Nutricional-América Latina y el Caribe 2022: Hacia una Mejor Asequibilidad de las Dietas Saludables. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc3859es
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO. (2022a). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022: Repurposing Food and Agricultural Policies to Make Healthy Diets More Affordable. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, & WHO. (2022b). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2022. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0639en
Freire, W. B., Silva-Jaramillo, K. M., Ramírez-Luzuriaga, M. J., Belmont, P., & Waters, W. F. (2014). The Double Burden of Undernutrition and Excess Body Weight in Ecuador. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(6), 1636S–1643S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.083766
Gazan, R., Brouzes, C. M. C., Vieux, F., Maillot, M., Lluch, A., & Darmon, N. (2018). Mathematical Optimization to Explore Tomorrow’s Sustainable Diets: A Narrative Review. Advances in Nutrition, 9(5), 602–616. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmy049
Ghosh, S. (2020). Factors Responsible for Childhood Malnutrition: A Review of the Literature. Current Research in Nutrition and Food Science, 8(2), 360–370. https://doi.org/10.12944/CRNFSJ.8.2.01
Gottesman, M. M. (2002). Helping Toddlers Eat Well. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 16(2), 92–96. https://doi.org/10.1067/mph.2002.122804
Hirvonen, K., Bai, Y., Headey, D., & Masters, W. A. (2020). Affordability of the EAT-Lancet Reference Diet: A Global Analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 8(1), e59–e66. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(19)30447-4
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2019). Índice de Precios al Consumidor (IPC) - Metodología. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/Inflacion/2019/Doc-metodologicos-ago-2019/Metodologia_IPC(Base%202014%3D100).pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2022a). Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo (ENEMDU), Diciembre 2022: Pobreza y Desigualdad. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/web-inec/POBREZA/2022/Diciembre_2022/Informe_pobreza_diciembre_2022.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2023). Informe Ejecutivo de las Canastas Analíticas: Básica y Vital. Enero 2023. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/documentos/webinec/Inflacion/canastas/Canas-tas_2023/Enero/1.%20Informe_Ejecutivo_Canastas_Analiticas_ene_2023.pdf
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2018).Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición (ENSANUT).
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (INEC). (2022b). Pobreza por Ingresos: Indicadores de Pobreza y Desigualdad-Ecuador. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/pobreza-diciembre-2022/
Montagnese, C., Santarpia, L., Buonifacio, M., Nardelli, A., Caldara, A. R., Silvestri, E., Contaldo, F., & Pasanisi, F. (2015). European Food-Based Dietary Guidelines: A Comparison and Update. Nutrition, 31(7–8), 908–915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2015.01.002
Nyberg, S. T., Batty, G. D., Pentti, J., Virtanen, M., Alfredsson, L., Fransson, E. I., Goldberg, M., Heikkilä, K., Jokela, M., Knutsson, A., Koskenvuo, M., Lallukka, T., Leineweber, C., Lindbohm, J. V., Madsen, I. E. H., Magnus-son Hanson, L. L., Nordin, M., Oksanen, T., Pietiläinen, O., ... Kivimäki, M. (2018). Obesity and Loss of Disease-Free Years Owing to Major Non-Communicable Diseases: A Multicohort Study. The Lancet Public Health, 3(10), e490–e497. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30139-7
Palma, A. (2018). Malnutrition Among Children in Latin America and the Caribbean. CEPAL. https://www.cepal.org/en/insights/malnutri-tion-among-children-latin-america-and-caribbean
Sakarovitch, M. (2013). Linear Programming. Birkhäuser. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4106-3
Smith, V. E. (1959). Linear Programming Models for the Determination of Palatable Human Diets. Journal of Farm Economics, 41(2), 272–283. https://doi.org/10.2307/1235154
Soeters, P., Bozzetti, F., Cynober, L., Forbes, A., Shenkin, A., & Sobotka, L. (2017). Defining Malnutrition: A Plea to Rethink. Clinical Nutrition, 36(3), 896–901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2016.09.032
Stigler, G. J. (1945). The Cost of Subsistence. Journal of Farm Economics, 27(2), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.2307/1231810
Tharrey, M., Olaya, G., Fewtrell, M., & Ferguson, E. (2017). Adaptation of New Colombian Food-Based Complementary Feeding Recommendations Using Linear Programming. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition, 65(5), 582–589. https://doi.org/10.1097/MPG.0000000000001662
Verly-Jr, E., Sichieri, R., Darmon, N., Maillot, M., & Sarti, F. M. (2019). Planning Dietary Improvements Without Additional Costs for Low-In-come Individuals in Brazil: Linear Programming Optimization as a Tool for Public Policy in Nutrition and Health. Nutrition Journal, 18(1), 40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12937-019-0466-y
Walrod, J., Seccareccia, E., Sarmiento, I., Pimentel, J. P., Misra, S., Morales, J., Doucet, A., & Andersson, N. (2018). Community Factors Associat-ed with Stunting, Overweight and Food Insecurity: A Community-Based Mixed-Method Study in Four Andean Indigenous Communities in Ecuador. BMJ Open, 8(7), e020760. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020760
Whitelock, E., & Ensaff, H. (2018). On Your Own: Older Adults’ Food Choice and Dietary Habits. Nutrients, 10(4), 413. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10040413
World Health Organization (WHO). (2000). Turning the Tide of Malnutrition: Responding to the Challenge of the 21st Century. WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66505
World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). Action Framework for Developing and Implementing Public Food Procurement and Service Policies for a Healthy Diet. WHO. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/338525